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This banner text can have markup. Search the history of over billion web pages on the Internet. Full text of ” Elementary Biology, Plant, Animal, Human ” See other formats Google This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world’s books discoverable online.

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After the raw materials have been changed into the plant foods by green leaves, these plant foods, by the process of digestion, are changed into such a form that they can pass from the leaves into the fibrous bark in which are tubular cells known as sieve-tubes. The Indians build their houses partly of wood ; they carve spoons, bowls, plates, and baskets, beautifully, with iron chisels. Black stick on winged u plunge bra 32d TA it;ARr.

We must account for it to those who come after us and audit our records. Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 19×3.

Reprinted July, Xorfnool Jftm J. Norwood, Mans.

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One class embraces the func- tions relating to the life of the individual organism. These functions have to do with the processes of eating, digest- ing, assimilating, taking in of oxygen, producing of energy, and excreting of waste matters.

These may be called the nutritive functionSf if the term is used in its broadest sense. To the second group of activities belong the fimctions that have to do with the perpetuation of the animal or plant species, and these are known as the reproductive functions.

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Living organisms, whether plant, ammal, or human, may, in the third place, be considered in their relations to one another and especially to the general welfare of mankind.

Thus we may discuss the beneficial or injurious effects, so far as man is concerned, of different kinds of insects or of various types of bacteria ; we may learn of the activities of individual men or of groups of individuals which promote or retard the advance of human society ; or we might, if we were to carry the study still farther, even seek to learn the ways by which the higher thoughts of mankind, as expressed in poetry, music, and religion, affect the development of the human race.

In the preparation of this text, the authors have sought to keep continually in mind these three classes of activities, and to imify the study of plant, animal, and human biology by choosing those topics for laboratory work or text descrip- tion that have to do in a broad sense with one or the other of the three great groups of functions of living things to which vu viii PREFACE we have just referred.

In doing this, they are conscious that many subjects have been slighted or altogether omitted which might well be treated in a year’s work in either botany, or zoology, or hiunan physiology.

Again, in the treatment of a given subject, for example, stems, fishes, or circulation, special emphasis might be laid on structure, on function, or on the relation of the given topic to human life.

Books both interesting and scientifically worth while could be prepared along any one of these lines, or, if time permitted, all three phases might be equally em- phasized.

But when we remember that less than two hun- dred school periods will probably be devoted by the average student to the study of biology, the necessity for adhering pretty consistently to some one plan is obvious.

In the judgment of the authors the kind of biology most worth while for the average boy or girl of fourteen years of age is not one based primarily on structure.

Young stu- dents are naturally more interested in activities or func- tions than they are in mere form or structure.

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Hence, if we wish to work with, rather than ” against the grain,” we must put function in the foreground of our discussion. Every boy and girl knows, too, that both plants and animals as well as human beings must have food and drink, and that they grow and reproduce their kind.

It is relatively much easier, therefore, to unify a course like this along physiological lines than on the basis of morphology, or of homologies of structure, many of which are far too complicated to be made clear to young students.

If properly outlined and presented, there is probably no subject in the school curriculum that can be made of more service to a growing youth than can biology.

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Biological problems confront him at every turn, and if he is a normal being, he will have asked himself question after question PREFACE ix which an elementary knowledge of biology ought to help him to answer.

Some of these questions may be the following : Whence comes the food and oxygen supply used by man? Why are food and oxygen needed in our bodies?

Why are some substances beneficial to the body and others injurious? What is the cause of disease, and how is disease transmitted?

And if we were to tabulate the biological questions that occur spontaneously to the average pupil in the first year in the high school, we should doubtless find that a great proportion of these questions had to do with the relation of the living world to human life.

In order, however, to treat intelligently such a function, for example, as respiration or digestion, it is of course necessary to know something of the machinery by which each of these processes is carried on, and so there must be at least a mini- mum consideration of the structure of plants, animals, and the human body.

In every case, however, the authors have called attention only to those details which seem to’ be abso- lutely essential for an interpretation of the function under consideration.

Whenever names in common use are suffi- ciently accurate for descriptions, these are chosen in prefer- ence to scientific terms.

Frequently the latter are neces- sarily used, and so, whenever their meaning is made clearer by referring to their derivation from Latin or Greek, these derivations are indicated in parentheses.

X PREFACE The sections in coarse type contain the material that seems to the authors most essential for any clear understanding of the subject as a whole, while in fine type we have put addi- tional laboratory work and text description which we believe to have an important bearing on the various topics discussed.

If both coarse and fine print on animal, or plant, or human biology are used, sufficient material for a half-year course in either elementary botany, zoology, or human physiology will be provided.

In the judgment of the authors, plant biology should always be considered first and human biology last in the course for the following reasons : 1 Plants lend themselves far more readily to close observation and especially to experiments than do animals, and so fundamental processes which apply to all living things can be demonstrated scientifically from plant material.

In fact, as the work proceeds, comparisons will constantly be made between plants, animals, and man to show that the essential differ- ences in the three kinds of organisms consist not in the dif- ferences in the functions which they carry on, but in the organs by which the functions are performed.

So far as the order of individual topics under plant, ani- mal, and human biology is concerned, the instructor should PREFACE XI plan the sequence that best fits the season.

In fact, the last use that a good teacher will make of any laboratory manual or text-book is that of following it slavishly. It is the hope of the authors, however, that the laboratory guides and the text descriptions which follow may be suflSciently sugges- tive to help some teachers to work out improved methods in biological instruction.

In Appendix II will be found a suggested order of topics which the authors have found satisfactory. Living organisms are to a large extent to be regarded as chemical engines so constructed as to liberate different kinds of energy.

No one, of course, knows in any ultimate sense how even the simplest functions are performed by the sim- plest animals or plants.

But it is utterly useless to attempt to teach biological functions without first presenting some of the elementary principles involved in physical and chemical phenomena.

For this reason the first chapter in Plant Biology is devoted to the study of the Composition of Lifeless and Living Things.

In Chapter III is a brief discussion of the structure of a common plant, and since cells are funda- mentally alike in structure and functions in all living or- ganisms, emphasis is laid early in the course on the essential characteristics of these cellular elements in plants.

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Another topic which necessarily recurs throughout plant, animal, and human biology is the principle of osmosis and its applica- tions. The authors have inserted experiments which in their experience have helped to fix in mind this important principle and which demonstrate the necessity of digestion in plants and animals.

After this brief consideration of the fundamentals of plant composition, structure, and processes, Chapters V, VI, and VII are devoted to the study of the adaptations of plants for performing nutritive and reproductive functions.

This treatment presents only the briefest statement of underiying principles, since any extended dis- cussion of this topic belongs to a course in agriculture.

In Chapters IX Plants in their Relation to Human Wel- fare and X Plant Classification the method of presentation is strikingly diflferent from that adopted in the rest of the book, particularly so in the treatment of the spore-bearing plants.

The authors believe that every pupil should be taught something of these simpler forms especially bacteriaand that he should get as many of these facts as possible by observation.

But to expect much laboratory work from young students on difficult microscopic forms like many of these cryptogams, is, we are confident, quite out of the question.

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We have, therefore, frankly abandoned the inductive method of study and have suggested that the laboratory work be largely in the nature of demonstrations.

It is, of course, understood that if these forms are studied, the drawings and descriptions will be prepared from material in the hands of the student.

In our judgment there are few if any biological topics which are more important in their practical bearings than is that of bacteria.

As commonly studied the disease-pro- ducing effects of these organisms are emphasized so much that boys and girls do not appreciate that all the work of the higher plants depends ultimately upon the activity of these low forms of fungi.

In order to bring out this aspect of the work of bacteria and for other obvious reasons the structure, physiology, and economic benefit of these organisms are con- sidered in the chapter on the relation of plants to human welfare, while their pathogenic eflFects are reserved for dis- cussion in human biology.

Limitations of time compel a rigid and somewhat narrow selection of groups for intensive study, and only those functions of each animal are considered which have some relation to human biology, or which have a broad, economic bearing.

Thus insects are discussed largely because of their injurious or beneficial effects upon mankind ; birds and fishes, because of their economic importance, and because of the great need for their conservation; and one-celled animals because of the light they throw on cellular processes.

Certain other somewhat less important topics are considered inci- dentally ; for example, protective resemblance and metamor- phosis among insects, and the striking adaptations of structure to function in the bills, feet, and feathers of birds.

The animals suggested for additional study, if time per- mits, are representative mammals,’ reptiles, amphibia, arthro- pods, molluscs, worms, and ccelenterates.

In many classes there are students who can work faster than the others, or who are interested in pursuing further their biological stud- ies. Such students may l e directed in carrying on some of these studies either in class or outside of school hours.

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In any case, students are likely to acquire considerable infor- mation by reading these textbook descriptions and studying the illustrations.

All the work of the year should lead up to and culminate in human biology. Here, too, however, many important top- ics must be treated only superficially, or altogether omitted, on account of lack of time.

The authors believe that in this, the most important part of the course, practical hygiene should be taught as effectively as possible, and that the necessity for good food, pure air, varied exercise, and suffi- xiv PREFACE cient sleep should be continually emphasized.

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If boys and girls can be led to conform their daily habits to the princi- ples of healthy living, the course in biology will have its highest justification.

No study of human biology should be allowed to leave in the mind of the student the idea that he is merely a chemical engine adapted only for the generation of a certain amount of physical energy.

The primary object of all secondary education should be the development of character and effi- ciency, and the true teacher ought to find opportunity again and again to touch the individual life of the young student.

Especially should this be true in the study of biology. Growing boys and girls ought to come to feel, as they have never felt, that they have in their keeping a most complex and wonderful piece of living machinery which can be easily put out of order or even wrecked.

But, on the other hand, they should see that if the bodily machine is well cared for, it is capable of splendid work which may help to increase the sum total of human efficiency and happiness.

In the preparation of this book the authors have received a great many suggestions from the teachers in their own departments and those of other schools.

Our thanks are due to Miss M. The authors have been especially fortunate in securing the constructive criticism of Dr. He has carefully read all of the manu- script and the page proofs of the ” Plant Biology.

Webber, Professor E. Fippin, and others at Cornell University, for valuable ma- terial and illustrations for the chapter on Plant Propagation.